References

Every source cited across the compound briefs, gathered here in full — 992 references across 22 compounds, in the same Vancouver format used on each page. Filter to a single compound, or browse them all below.

CBD 44 references

1. Hardy J, Greer R, Huggett G, Kearney A, Gurgenci T, Good P. Phase IIb Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Dose-Escalating, Double-Blind Study of Cannabidiol Oil for the Relief of Symptoms in Advanced Cancer (MedCan1-CBD). J Clin Oncol. 2023;41(7):1444–1452. Source ↗
2. Gurgenci T, Kijanka G, Greer R, Huggett G, Good P, Moniruzzaman M, Hardy J. Exploring potential anti-inflammatory effects of medicinal cannabis. Support Care Cancer. 2023;31(11):629. Source ↗
3. Hardy J, Greer R, Gurgenci T, et al. Medicinal cannabis for symptom control in advanced cancer: RCT of 1:1 THC and CBD. Support Care Cancer. 2025. Source ↗
4. Aviram J, Samuelly-Leichtag G. Cannabidiol may prolong survival in patients with glioblastoma multiforme. Front Oncol. 2022;12:837513. Source ↗
5. Sáenz-Antoñanzas A, Arriola E, Salgado J, et al. THC/CBD oral solution + TMZ and radiotherapy in newly diagnosed glioblastoma: Phase Ib GEINO-1601 trial. Ann Oncol. 2024;35(suppl 2):S1495. Source ↗
6. McAllister SD, Murase R, Christian RT, et al. Pathways mediating CBD effects on breast cancer cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2011;129(1):37–47. Source ↗
7. Elbaz M, Nasser MW, Ravi J, et al. Modulation of the tumour microenvironment and inhibition of EGF/EGFR pathway: novel anti-tumour mechanisms of CBD in breast cancer. Oncogenesis. 2015;4(8):e159. Source ↗
8. Sorosina L, Singer E, Dighe P, et al. CBD inhibits RAD51 and sensitises glioblastoma to temozolomide in multiple orthotopic tumour models. Neurooncol Adv. 2022;4(1):vdac019. Source ↗
9. Wang LP, Chagas PS, Salles ÉL, et al. Cannabidiol as a Prophylactic Agent Against Glioblastoma Growth: A Preclinical Investigation. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27(2):757. Source ↗
10. Jeong S, Yoon S, Kim S, et al. CBD-induced apoptosis is mediated by activation of Noxa in human colorectal cancer cells. Cancer Lett. 2019;447:12–23. Source ↗
11. Feng P, Zhu L, Jie J, et al. CBD inhibits invasion and metastasis in CRC by reversing EMT through Wnt/β-catenin signalling. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2023;149(7):3587–3598. Source ↗
12. Campitelli LF, Kloeppel T, Austin JR, et al. CBD rewires tumour microenvironment via inhibiting alternative activation of macrophage and synergises with anti-PD-1 in colon cancer. J Immunother Cancer. 2023;11(7):e006505. Source ↗
13. Ramer R, Heinemann K, Merkord J, et al. COX-2 and PPAR-γ confer cannabidiol-induced apoptosis of human lung cancer cells. Mol Cancer Ther. 2013;12(1):69–82. Source ↗
14. Camilleri M, Kaur A, Bhatt P, et al. CBD is associated with improved survival in pancreatic cancer and modulation of bile acids and gut microbiota. Cancers (Basel). 2025. Source ↗
15. Cannabidiol targets colorectal cancer cells via cannabinoid receptor 2 independent of common mutations. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci. 2025. Source ↗
16. Luengo JMH, Reszka SJ, Stegmaier P, et al. CBD converts NF-κB into a tumour suppressor in glioblastoma with defined antioxidative properties. Neuro Oncol. 2021;23(11):1898–1911. Source ↗
17. McAllister SD, Christian RT, Horowitz MP, Garcia A, Desprez PY. Cannabidiol as a novel inhibitor of Id-1 gene expression in aggressive breast cancer cells. Mol Cancer Ther. 2007;6(11):2921–2927. Source ↗
18. Fu X, Yu Z, Fang F, et al. Cannabidiol attenuates lipid metabolism and induces CB1 receptor-mediated ER stress associated apoptosis in ovarian cancer cells. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):4307. Source ↗
19. Solinas M, Massi P, Cantelmo AR, et al. Cannabidiol inhibits angiogenesis by multiple mechanisms. Br J Pharmacol. 2012;167(6):1218–1231. Source ↗
20. Cannabidiol pharmacology review: receptors, mechanisms and oncology. Front Pharmacol. 2023;14:1094020. Source ↗
21. Cannabinoids in colorectal cancer and gut inflammation. Front Med. 2021;8:713153. Source ↗
22. CBD modulates ER-stress responses in CRC in a KRAS-mutation-dependent manner. ResearchGate. 2024. Source ↗
23. Shalata W, Nasrallah H, Shalata H, et al. Bioinformatic analysis predicts CBD could function as a potential inhibitor of the MAPK pathway in CRC. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(17):9558. Source ↗
24. Barbagallo GM, Certo F, Scalia G, et al. Cytotoxic effects of CBD and CBG on glioblastoma stem cells may mostly involve GPR55 and TRPV1 signalling. Cancers (Basel). 2022;14(24):6070. Source ↗
25. Martinez Naya N, Kelly J, Corna G, et al. An Overview of Cannabidiol as a Multifunctional Drug: Pharmacokinetics and Cellular Effects. Molecules. 2024;29(2):473. Source ↗
26. Pyszniak M, Puzia-Szkodo J, Podgajna M, et al. Mechanisms of cell death induced by CBD against tumour cells: a review. Plants. 2025;14(4):585. Source ↗
27. Durst R, Danenberg H, Gallily R, et al. Cannabidiol, a nonpsychoactive Cannabis constituent, protects against myocardial ischemic reperfusion injury. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;293(6):H3602–H3607. Source ↗
28. Henshaw FR, Dewsbury LS, Lim CK, Steiner GZ. The Effects of Cannabinoids on Pro- and Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines: A Systematic Review of In Vivo Studies. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2021;6(3):177–195. Source ↗
29. Millar SA, Stone NL, Yates AS, O'Sullivan SE. A systematic review on the pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol in humans. Front Pharmacol. 2018;9:1365. Source ↗
30. EPIDIOLEX (cannabidiol) prescribing information. U.S. Food and Drug Administration; 2025. Source ↗
31. Taylor L, Gidal B, Blakey G, Tayo B, Morrison G. A Phase I, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Single Ascending Dose, Multiple Dose, and Food Effect Trial of the Safety, Tolerability and Pharmacokinetics of Highly Purified Cannabidiol in Healthy Subjects. CNS Drugs. 2018;32(11):1053–1067. Source ↗
32. Morales P, et al. Contemplating cannabis? The complex relationship between cannabinoids and hepatic metabolism. Front Psychiatry. 2022;13:1055481. Source ↗
33. Grayson L, Vines B, Nichol K, Szaflarski JP. An interaction between warfarin and cannabidiol, a case report. Epilepsy Behav Case Rep. 2018;9:10–11. Source ↗
34. Morrison G, Crockett J, Blakey G, Sommerville K. A Phase 1, Open-Label, Pharmacokinetic Trial to Investigate Possible Drug-Drug Interactions Between Clobazam, Stiripentol, or Valproate and Cannabidiol in Healthy Subjects. Clin Pharmacol Drug Dev. 2019;8:1009–1031.
35. Bar-Sela G, Cohen I, Campisi-Pinto S, et al. Cannabis consumption used by cancer patients during immunotherapy correlates with poor clinical outcome. Cancers (Basel). 2022;14(8):1957.
36. Knaub RM, et al. Randomised single-dose crossover comparative bioavailability study of two novel oral CBD formulations vs standard CBD isolate capsule. J Cannabis Res. 2025. Source ↗
37. Wang F, Dezfouli AB, Khosravi M, et al. Cannabidiol-induced crosstalk of apoptosis and macroautophagy in colorectal cancer cells involves p53 and Hsp70. Cell Death Discov. 2023;9(1):286. Source ↗
38. Shrivastava A, Kuzontkoski PM, Groopman JE, Prasad A. Cannabidiol induces programmed cell death in breast cancer cells by coordinating the cross-talk between apoptosis and autophagy. Mol Cancer Ther. 2011;10(7):1161–1172. Source ↗
39. Child RB, Tallon MJ. Cannabidiol (CBD) dosing: plasma pharmacokinetics and effects on accumulation in skeletal muscle, liver and adipose tissue. Nutrients. 2022;14(10):2101. Source ↗
40. Kim J, Ahn KS. Cannabidiol Suppresses EMT in Pancreatic Cancer via Inhibition of MALAT1 lncRNA and PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway. IUBMB Life. 2025;77(8):e70042. Source ↗
41. Zhang X, Qin Y, Pan Z, et al. Cannabidiol Induces Cell Cycle Arrest and Cell Apoptosis in Human Gastric Cancer SGC-7901 Cells. Biomolecules. 2019;9(8):302. Source ↗
42. Jeong S, Jo MJ, Yun HK, et al. Cannabidiol promotes apoptosis via regulation of XIAP/Smac in gastric cancer. Cell Death Dis. 2019;10(11):846. Source ↗
43. Singh N, Hroudová J, Fišar Z. Cannabinoid-Induced Changes in the Activity of Electron Transport Chain Complexes of Brain Mitochondria. J Mol Neurosci. 2015;56(4):926–931. Source ↗
44. Mangal N, Reebye V, Habib N, Sodergren MH. Cannabidiol's cytotoxicity in pancreatic cancer is induced via an upregulation of ceramide synthase 1 and ER stress. J Cannabis Res. 2024;6(1):22. Source ↗

Berberine 31 references

1. Chen YX, Gao QY, Zou TH, Wang BM, Liu SD, Sheng JQ, et al. Berberine versus placebo for the prevention of recurrence of colorectal adenoma: a multicentre, double-blinded, randomised controlled study. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;5(3):267–275. Source ↗
2. Tan YJ, Zou TH, Yu K, Sheng JQ, Jin P, Zhang MJ, et al. Berberine for preventing colorectal adenoma recurrence and neoplasm occurrence: 6-Year follow-up of a randomized clinical trial. Cell Rep Med. 2025;6(9):102293. Source ↗
3. Xu L, Zhang Y, Xue X, Liu J, Li ZS, Yang GY, et al. A Phase I Trial of Berberine in Chinese with Ulcerative Colitis. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2020;13(1):117–126. Source ↗
4. Yin J, Xing H, Ye J. Efficacy of berberine in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism. 2008;57(5):712–717. Source ↗
5. Effects of administering berberine alone or in combination on type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Pharmacol. 2024. Source ↗
6. Tillhon M, Guamán Ortiz LM, Lombardi P, Scovassi AI. Berberine: new perspectives for old remedies. Biochem Pharmacol. 2012;84(10):1260–1267. Source ↗
7. Li W, Hua B, Saud SM, Lin H, Hou W, Matter MS, Jia L, Colburn NH, Young MR. Berberine regulates AMP-activated protein kinase signaling pathways and inhibits colon tumorigenesis in mice. Mol Carcinog. 2015;54(11):1096–1109. Source ↗
8. Ming M, Sinnett-Smith J, Wang J, Soares HP, Young SH, Eibl G, Rozengurt E. Dose-Dependent AMPK-Dependent and Independent Mechanisms of Berberine and Metformin Inhibition of mTORC1, ERK, DNA Synthesis and Proliferation in Pancreatic Cancer Cells. PLoS One. 2014;9(12):e114573. Source ↗
9. Tsang CM, Cheung YC, Lui VW, Yip YL, Zhang G, Lin VW, Cheung KC, Feng Y, Tsao SW. Berberine suppresses tumorigenicity and growth of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells by inhibiting STAT3 activation induced by tumor associated fibroblasts. BMC Cancer. 2013;13:619. Source ↗
10. Liu Y, Yu H, Zhang C, Cheng Y, Hu L, Meng X, Zhao Y. Protective effects of berberine on radiation-induced lung injury via intercellular adhesion molecular-1 and transforming growth factor-beta-1 in patients with lung cancer. Eur J Cancer. 2008;44(16):2425–2432. Source ↗
11. Turner N, Li JY, Gosby A, To SWC, Cheng Z, Miyoshi H, et al. Berberine and its more biologically available derivative, dihydroberberine, inhibit mitochondrial respiratory complex I: a mechanism for the action of berberine to activate AMP-activated protein kinase and improve insulin action. Diabetes. 2008;57(5):1414–1418. Source ↗
12. Kang YH, Wang JH, Lee JS, Hwang SJ, Lee NH, Son CG. Berberine inhibits colorectal liver metastasis via modulation of TGF-β in a cecum transplant mouse model. Eur J Med Res. 2024;29(1):552. Source ↗
13. Wen C, Wu L, Fu L, Zhang X, et al. Berberine enhances the anti-tumor activity of tamoxifen in drug-sensitive MCF-7 and drug-resistant MCF-7/TAM cells. Mol Med Rep. 2016. Source ↗
14. Li J, Pan Y, Kan M, Xiao X, Wang Y, Guan F, et al. Hepatoprotective effects of berberine on liver fibrosis via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase. Life Sci. 2014;98(1):24–30. Source ↗
15. Kong Y, Yang H, Nie R, Zhang X, Zhang H, Nian X. Berberine as a multi-target therapeutic agent for obesity: from pharmacological mechanisms to clinical evidence. Eur J Med Res. 2025;30(1):477. Source ↗
16. Nie Q, Li M, Huang C, Yuan Y, Liang Q, Ma X, Qiu T, Li J. The clinical efficacy and safety of berberine in the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a meta-analysis and systematic review. J Transl Med. 2024;22(1):225. Source ↗
17. Ehteshamfar SM, et al. Anti-inflammatory and immune-modulatory impacts of berberine on activation of autoreactive T cells in autoimmune inflammation. J Cell Mol Med. 2020. Source ↗
18. Guo Y, Chen Y, Tan ZR, Klaassen CD, Zhou HH. Repeated administration of berberine inhibits cytochromes P450 in humans. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;68(2):213–217. Source ↗
19. Moon JM, Ratliff KM, Hagele AM, Stecker RA, Mumford PW, Kerksick CM. Absorption Kinetics of Berberine and Dihydroberberine and Their Impact on Glycemia: A Randomized, Controlled, Crossover Pilot Trial. Nutrients. 2021;14(1):124. Source ↗
20. Hou Q, Han W, Fu X. Pharmacokinetic interaction between tacrolimus and berberine in a child with idiopathic nephrotic syndrome. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2013;69(10):1861–1862. Source ↗
21. Chan E. Displacement of bilirubin from albumin by berberine. Biology of the Neonate. 1993;63(4):201–208. Source ↗
22. Chang C, Roh YS, Du M, Kuo YC, Zhang Y, Hardy M, Gahler R, Solnier J. Differences in Metabolite Profiles of Dihydroberberine and Micellar Berberine in Caco-2 Cells and Humans—A Pilot Study. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(11):5625. Source ↗
23. Solnier J, Zhang Y, Kuo YC, Du M, Roh K, Gahler R, Wood S, Chang C. Characterization and Pharmacokinetic Assessment of a New Berberine Formulation with Enhanced Absorption In Vitro and in Human Volunteers. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15:2567. Source ↗
24. Ikem DC, Buzugbe SH, Okubor PC, Michael OE. Comparative In Silico ADMET Analysis of Berberine and Piperine: A Rationale for Combinatorial Therapy to Overcome P-Glycoprotein-Mediated Efflux. FUDMA Journal of Sciences. 2026;10(6):16–20.
25. Vidar WS, Baumeister TUH, Caesar LK, Kellogg JJ, Todd DA, Linington RG, et al. Interaction Metabolomics to Discover Synergists in Natural Product Mixtures. J Nat Prod. 2023;86(4):655–671. Source ↗
26. Tak J, Sabarwal A, Shyanti RK, Singh RP. Berberine enhances posttranslational protein stability of p21/cip1 in breast cancer cells via down-regulation of Akt. Mol Cell Biochem. 2019;458(1-2):49–59. Source ↗
27. Tan CS, Wong KY, Loh HY, Yeap SK, Ho WY, Boo SY, Beh BK, Yong CY, Ho KL, Cheng WH. Tissue distribution of berberine and its metabolites after oral administration in rats. PLoS One. 2013;8(10):e77969. Source ↗
28. Shah D, Challagundla N, Dave V, Patidar A, Saha B, Nivsarkar M, et al. Berberine mediates tumor cell death by skewing tumor-associated immunosuppressive macrophages to inflammatory macrophages. Phytomedicine. 2022;99:153904. Source ↗
29. Ruan H, Zhan YY, Hou J, Xu B, Chen B, Tian Y, Wu D, Zhao Y, Zhang Y, Chen X, et al. Berberine binds RXRα to suppress β-catenin signaling in colon cancer cells. Oncogene. 2017;36(50):6906–6918. Source ↗
30. Lin S, Tsai SC, Lee CC, Wang BW, Liou JY, Shyu KG. Berberine inhibits HIF-1alpha expression via enhanced proteolysis. Mol Pharmacol. 2004;66(3):612–619. Source ↗
31. Yan X, Yuan C, Wang Z, Xu Z, Wu Z, Wang M, Xu M, Wang Z, Sun Y. Berberine modulates ovarian cancer autophagy and glycolysis through the LINC01123/P65/MAPK10 signaling axis. Phytomedicine. 2024;135:156121. Source ↗

Curcumin 64 references

1. Sharma RA, Euden SA, Platton SL, et al. Phase I clinical trial of oral curcumin: biomarkers of systemic activity and compliance. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10(20):6847–6854. Source ↗
2. Dhillon N, Aggarwal BB, Newman RA, et al. Phase II trial of curcumin in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2008;14(14):4491–4499. Source ↗
3. Kroon MAGM, van Laarhoven HWM, Swart EL, van Tellingen O, Kemper EM. A pharmacokinetic study and critical reappraisal of curcumin formulations enhancing bioavailability. iScience. 2025;28(6):112575. Source ↗
4. de Waure C, Bertola C, Baccarini G, Chiavarini M, Mancuso C. Exploring the Contribution of Curcumin to Cancer Therapy: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15(4):1275. Source ↗
5. Dharman S, G M, Shanmugasundaram K, Sampath RK. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Efficacy of Curcumin/Turmeric for the Prevention and Amelioration of Radiotherapy/Radiochemotherapy Induced Oral Mucositis in Head and Neck Cancer Patients. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2021;22(6):1671–1684. Source ↗
6. Gutsche LC, Dörfler J, Hübner J. Curcumin as a complementary treatment in oncological therapy: a systematic review. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2025;81:1–33. Source ↗
7. Howells LM, Iwuji COO, Irving GRB, et al. Curcumin Combined with FOLFOX Chemotherapy Is Safe and Tolerable in Patients with Metastatic Colorectal Cancer in a Randomized Phase IIa Trial. J Nutr. 2019;149(7):1133–1139. Source ↗
8. Somasundaram S, Edmund NA, Moore DT, Small GW, Shi YY, Orlowski RZ. Dietary curcumin inhibits chemotherapy-induced apoptosis in models of human breast cancer. Cancer Res. 2002;62(13):3868–3875. Source ↗
9. Panahi Y, Saadat A, Beiraghdar F, Sahebkar A. Adjuvant therapy with bioavailability-boosted curcuminoids suppresses systemic inflammation and improves quality of life in patients with solid tumors: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Phytother Res. 2014;28(10):1461–1467. Source ↗
10. Li S-Q, Zhu X-R, Qin B-C, Chen M-B. Curcumin in colorectal cancer: mechanistic insights, pharmacological limitations, and translational perspectives. Front Pharmacol. 2025;16:1667731. Source ↗
11. Wang X, Tian Y, Lin H, Cao X, Zhang Z. Curcumin induces apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells by decreasing the expression of STAT3/VEGF/HIF-1α signaling. Open Life Sci. 2023;18(1):20220618. Source ↗
12. Jiao D, Wang J, Lu W, Tang X, Chen J, Mou H, Chen QY. Curcumin inhibited HGF-induced EMT and angiogenesis through regulating c-Met dependent PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways in lung cancer. Mol Ther Oncolytics. 2016;3:16018. Source ↗
13. Bharti AC, Donato N, Singh S, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin (diferuloylmethane) down-regulates the constitutive activation of nuclear factor-κB and IκBα kinase in human multiple myeloma cells, leading to suppression of proliferation and induction of apoptosis. Blood. 2003;101(3):1053–1062. Source ↗
14. Hu P, Ke C, Guo X, Ren P, Tong Y, Luo S, et al. Both glypican-3/Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway and autophagy contributed to the inhibitory effect of curcumin on hepatocellular carcinoma. Dig Liver Dis. 2019;51(1):120–126. Source ↗
15. Tang X, Ding H, Liang M, Chen X, Yan Y, Wan N, Chen Q, Zhang J, Cao J. Curcumin induces ferroptosis in non-small-cell lung cancer via activating autophagy. Thorac Cancer. 2021;12(8):1219–1230. Source ↗
16. Lu Y, Miao L, Wang Y, Xu Z, Zhao Y, Shen Y, Xiang G, Huang L. Curcumin Micelles Remodel Tumor Microenvironment and Enhance Vaccine Activity in an Advanced Melanoma Model. Mol Ther. 2016;24(2):364–374. Source ↗
17. Tu SP, Jin H, Shi JD, Zhu LM, Suo Y, Lu G, et al. Curcumin induces the differentiation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and inhibits their interaction with cancer cells and related tumor growth. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2012;5(2):205–215. Source ↗
18. Kim B, Kim HS, Jung EJ, Lee JY, Tsang BK, Lim JM, Song YS. Curcumin induces ER stress-mediated apoptosis through selective generation of reactive oxygen species in cervical cancer cells. Mol Carcinog. 2016;55(5):918–928. Source ↗
19. Huang YF, Zhu DJ, Chen XW, Chen QK, Luo ZT, Liu CC, Wang GX, Zhang WJ, Liao NZ. Curcumin enhances the effects of irinotecan on colorectal cancer cells through the generation of reactive oxygen species and activation of the endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway. Oncotarget. 2017;8(25):40264–40275. Source ↗
20. Kanai M, Otsuka Y, Otsuka K, Sato M, Nishimura T, Mori Y, et al. A phase I study investigating the safety and pharmacokinetics of highly bioavailable curcumin (Theracurmin) in cancer patients. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2013;71(6):1521–1530. Source ↗
21. Kanai M, Imaizumi A, Otsuka Y, et al. Dose-escalation and pharmacokinetic study of nanoparticle curcumin, a potential anticancer agent with improved bioavailability, in healthy human volunteers. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2012;69(1):65–70. Source ↗
22. Chung H, Lee Y, Lee K, et al. Comparative pharmacokinetics of Theracurmin Super vs Theracurmin in a randomised crossover study. Clin Transl Sci. 2022. Source ↗
23. Gota VS, Maru GB, Soni TG, Gandhi TR, Kochar N, Agarwal MG. Safety and pharmacokinetics of a solid lipid curcumin particle formulation in osteosarcoma patients and healthy volunteers. J Agric Food Chem. 2010;58(4):2095–2099. Source ↗
24. Cuomo J, Appendino G, Dern AS, et al. Comparative absorption of a standardized curcuminoid mixture and its lecithin formulation. J Nat Prod. 2011;74(4):664–669. Source ↗
25. Antony B, Merina B, Iyer VS, et al. A Pilot Cross-Over Study to Evaluate Human Oral Bioavailability of BCM-95CG (Biocurcumax), A Novel Bioenhanced Preparation of Curcumin. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2008;70(4):445–449. Source ↗
26. Shoba G, Joy D, Joseph T, et al. Influence of piperine on the pharmacokinetics of curcumin in animals and human volunteers. Planta Med. 1998;64(4):353–356. Source ↗
27. Jäger R, Lowery RP, Calvanese AV, Joy JM, Purpura M, Wilson JM. Comparative absorption of curcumin formulations. Nutr J. 2014;13:11. Source ↗
28. Jabur L, Pandey R, Mikhael M, Niedermayer G, Gyengesi E, Mahns D, Münch G. Pharmacokinetic Analysis of the Bioavailability of AQUATURM®, a Water-Soluble Curcumin Formulation, in Comparison to a Conventional Curcumin Tablet, in Human Subjects. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2025;18(7):1073. Source ↗
29. Vareed SK, Kakarala M, Ruffin MT, Crowell JA, Normolle DP, Djuric Z, Brenner DE. Pharmacokinetics of curcumin conjugate metabolites in healthy human subjects. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008;17(6):1411–1417. Source ↗
30. Grafeneder J, Derhaschnig U, Eskandary F, Buchtele N, Sus N, Frank J, Jilma B, Schoergenhofer C. Micellar Curcumin: Pharmacokinetics and Effects on Inflammation Markers and PCSK-9 Concentrations in Healthy Subjects in a Double-Blind, Randomized, Active-Controlled, Crossover Trial. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2022;66(22):e2200139. Source ↗
31. Volak LP, Ghirmai S, Cashman JR, Court MH. Curcuminoids inhibit multiple human cytochromes P450, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, and sulfotransferase enzymes, whereas piperine is a relatively selective CYP3A4 inhibitor. Drug Metab Dispos. 2008;36(8):1594–1605. Source ↗
32. Volak LP, Hanley MJ, Masse G, et al. Effect of a herbal extract containing curcumin and piperine on midazolam, flurbiprofen and paracetamol (acetaminophen) pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2013;75(2):450–462. Source ↗
33. Tan CSS, Lee SWH. Warfarin and food, herbal or dietary supplement interactions: a systematic review. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2021;87(2):352–374. Source ↗
34. Halegoua-DeMarzio D, Navarro V, Ahmad J, Avula B, Barnhart H, Barritt AS, et al. Liver Injury Associated with Turmeric—A Growing Problem: Ten Cases from the Drug-Induced Liver Injury Network (DILIN). Am J Med. 2023;136(2):200–206. Source ↗
35. Naghsh N, Musazadeh V, Nikpayam O, Kavyani Z, Moridpour AH, Golandam F, Faghfouri AH, Ostadrahimi A. Profiling Inflammatory Biomarkers following Curcumin Supplementation: An Umbrella Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2023;2023:4875636. Source ↗
36. Farzaei MH, Zobeiri M, Parvizi F, El-Senduny FF, Marmouzi I, Coy-Barrera E, Naseri R, Nabavi SM, Rahimi R, Abdollahi M. Curcumin in Liver Diseases: A Systematic Review of the Cellular Mechanisms of Oxidative Stress and Clinical Perspective. Nutrients. 2018;10(7):855. Source ↗
37. Chou AH, Lee HC, Liao CC, Yu HP, Liu FC. ERK/NF-kB/COX-2 Signaling Pathway Plays a Key Role in Curcumin Protection against Acetaminophen-Induced Liver Injury. Life (Basel). 2023;13(11):2150. Source ↗
38. Fan H, Liang Y, Jiang B, Li X, Xun H, Sun J, He W, Lau HT, Ma X. Curcumin inhibits intracellular fatty acid synthase and induces apoptosis in human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. Oncol Rep. 2016;35(5):2651–2656. Source ↗
39. Fan H, Tian W, Ma X. Curcumin induces apoptosis of HepG2 cells via inhibiting fatty acid synthase. Target Oncol. 2014;9(3):279–286. Source ↗
40. Younesian O, Kazerouni F, Dehghan-Nayeri N, Omrani D, Rahimipour A, Shanaki M, Rezapour Kalkhoran M, Cheshmi F. Effect of Curcumin on Fatty Acid Synthase Expression and Enzyme Activity in Breast Cancer Cell Line SKBR3. Int J Cancer Manag. 2017;10(3):e8173. Source ↗
41. Sun D, Hu D, Wang J, Li X, Peng J, Wang S. Curcumin Rewires the Tumor Metabolic Landscape: Mechanisms and Clinical Prospects. Nutrients. 2025;18(1):53. Source ↗
42. Ding L, Li J, Song B, Xiao X, Zhang B, Qi M, Huang W, Yang L, Wang Z. Curcumin rescues high fat diet-induced obesity and insulin sensitivity in mice through regulating SREBP pathway. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2016;304:99–109. Source ↗
43. Shao W, Yu Z, Chiang Y, Yang Y, Chai T, Foltz W, Lu H, Fantus IG, Jin T. Curcumin Prevents High Fat Diet Induced Insulin Resistance and Obesity via Attenuating Lipogenesis in Liver and Inflammatory Pathway in Adipocytes. PLoS One. 2012;7(1):e28784. Source ↗
44. Dehzad MJ, Ghalandari H, Amini MR, Askarpour M. Effects of curcumin/turmeric supplementation on lipid profile: A GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Complement Ther Med. 2023;75:102955. Source ↗
45. Kocher A, Bohnert L, Schiborr C, Frank J. Highly bioavailable micellar curcuminoids accumulate in blood, are safe and do not reduce blood lipids and inflammation markers in moderately hyperlipidemic individuals. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2016;60(7):1555–1563. Source ↗
46. Lee WJ, Chien MH, Chow JM, Chang JL, Wen YC, Lin YW, Cheng CW, Lai GM, Hsiao M, Lee LM. Nonautophagic cytoplasmic vacuolation death induction in human PC-3M prostate cancer by curcumin through reactive oxygen species-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress. Sci Rep. 2015;5:10420. Source ↗
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CBG 18 references

1. Borrelli F, Pagano E, Romano B, Panzera S, Maiello F, Coppola D, De Petrocellis L, Buono L, Orlando P, Izzo AA. Colon carcinogenesis is inhibited by the TRPM8 antagonist cannabigerol, a Cannabis-derived non-psychotropic cannabinoid. Carcinogenesis. 2014;35(12):2787–2797. Source ↗
2. Park JH, Hwang YN, Na HH, Kim DY, Lee HJ, Kwon TH, Park JS, Kim KC. Cannabigerol treatment shows antiproliferative activity and causes apoptosis of human colorectal cancer cells. J Pharmacopuncture. 2024;27(4):332–339. Source ↗
3. Lah TT, Novak M, Pena Almidon MA, Marinelli O, Žvar Baškovič B, Majc B, Mlinar M, Bošnjak R, Breznik B, Zomer R, Nabissi M. Cannabigerol is a potential therapeutic agent in a novel combined therapy for glioblastoma. Cells. 2021;10(2):340. Source ↗
4. Zagzoog A, Halter K, Ha N, Jones AM, Andres R, Kim A, Michel D, Alcorn J, Laprairie RB. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cannabigerol (CBG) in the C57BL/6Crl mouse. Front Pharmacol. 2025;16:1672098. Source ↗
5. Cuttler C, Stueber A, Cooper ZD, Russo E. Acute effects of cannabigerol on anxiety, stress, and mood: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover, field trial. Sci Rep. 2024;14:16163. Source ↗
6. Story G, Lee J, Cohen G, Rani A, Doherty J, Sela DA. Impact of dietary fat and oral delivery system on cannabigerol pharmacokinetics in adults. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2024;9(6):1543–1555. doi:10.1089/can.2023.0174. Source ↗
7. Wolinsky D, Srungaram D, Zhang A, Moore CF, Pierce-Messick ZJ, Zamarripa CA, Spindle TR, Strickland JC, Sempio C, Klawitter J, Campos Palomino J, Christians U, Feldner MT, Vandrey R, Bonn-Miller MO, Weerts EM, Bergeria CL. Safety, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics of oral cannabigerol (CBG) in healthy adults. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2026;104984. doi:10.1016/j.jpet.2026.104984. Epub ahead of print. Source ↗
8. Russo EB, Cuttler C, Cooper ZD, Stueber A, Whiteley VL, Sexton M. Survey of patients employing cannabigerol-predominant cannabis preparations: perceived medical effects, adverse events, and withdrawal symptoms. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2022;7(6):706–716. Source ↗
9. Nachnani R, Raup-Konsavage WM, Vrana KE. The pharmacological case for cannabigerol. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2021;376(2):204–212. Source ↗
10. Borrelli F, Fasolino I, Romano B, Capasso R, Maiello F, Coppola D, Orlando P, Battista G, Pagano E, Di Marzo V, Izzo AA. Beneficial effect of the non-psychotropic plant cannabinoid cannabigerol on experimental inflammatory bowel disease. Biochem Pharmacol. 2013;85(9):1306–1316. Source ↗
11. Anderson BD, Sepulveda DE, Nachnani R, Cortez-Resendiz A, Coates MD, Beckett A, Bisanz JE, Kellogg JJ, Raup-Konsavage WM. High cannabigerol hemp extract moderates colitis and modulates the microbiome in an inflammatory bowel disease model. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2024;390(3):331–341. Source ↗
12. Ryšánek P, Jelínek P, Housar H, Kozlík P, Křížek T, Nováková A, Sklenárová M, Paulusová V, Merdita S, Arora M, Symkanych O, Šteigerová M, Zmeškalová E, Slanař O, Šoóš M, Šíma M. Effect of quantitative structural properties and drug formulation in four cannabinoids (cannabidiol, cannabigerol, cannabichromene, and cannabinol) on their lymphatic transport after enteral administration in rats. Mol Pharm. 2025;22(8):4544–4555. Source ↗
13. Serrano-Rodríguez JM, Miraz R, Saitua A, Díez de Castro E, Ledesma-Escobar C, Ferreiro-Vera C, Priego-Capote F, Sánchez de Medina V, Sánchez de Medina A. Metabolism, pharmacokinetics, and bioavailability of cannabigerol in horses following intravenous and oral administration with micellar and oil formulations. Front Vet Sci. 2025;12:1688214. Source ↗
14. Dada S, Ellis SLS, Wood C, Nohara LL, Dreier C, Garcia NH, Saranchova I, Munro L, Pfeifer CG, Eyford BA, Kari S, Garrovillas E, Caspani G, Al Haddad E, Gray PW, Morova T, Lack NA, Andersen RJ, Tjoelker L, Jefferies WA. Specific cannabinoids revive adaptive immunity by reversing immune evasion mechanisms in metastatic tumours. Front Immunol. 2023;13:982082. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.982082. Source ↗
15. Lamtha T, Tabtimmai L, Songtawee N, Tansakul N, Choowongkomon K. Structural analysis of cannabinoids against EGFR-TK leads a novel target against EGFR-driven cell lines. Curr Res Pharmacol Drug Discov. 2022;3:100132. Source ↗
16. Zeppa L, Aguzzi C, Morelli MB, Marinelli O, Giangrossi M, Luongo M, Amantini C, Santoni G, Nabissi M. Cannabigerol induces autophagic cell death by inhibiting EGFR-RAS pathways in human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell lines. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(4):2001. Source ↗
17. Mahmoud AM, Kostrzewa M, Marolda V, Cerasuolo M, Maccarinelli F, Coltrini D, Rezzola S, Giacomini A, Mollica MP, Motta A, Paris D, Zorzano A, Di Marzo V, Ronca R, Ligresti A. Cannabidiol alters mitochondrial bioenergetics via VDAC1 and triggers cell death in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Pharmacol Res. 2023;189:106683. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2023.106683. CBD is this paper's primary subject; CBG appears as a secondary comparator, and only the outcome-level CBG finding is used on this page. Source ↗
18. Aguzzi C, Zeppa L, Morelli MB, Marinelli O, Giangrossi M, Amantini C, Santoni G, Sazzad H, Nabissi M. Anticancer effect of minor phytocannabinoids in preclinical models of multiple myeloma. BioFactors. 2024;50(6):1208–1219. doi:10.1002/biof.2078. One co-author is affiliated with a cannabinoid company (Entourage Biosciences Inc.); noted here for research-context transparency, not as a reason to discount the findings. Source ↗

Boswellia 31 references

1. Kirste S, Treier M, Wehrle SJ, Becker G, Abdel-Tawab M, Gerbeth K, Hug MJ, Lubrich B, Grosu AL, Momm F. Boswellia serrata acts on cerebral edema in patients irradiated for brain tumors: a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind pilot trial. Cancer. 2011;117(16):3788–3795. Source ↗
2. Di Pierro F, Simonetti G, Petruzzi A, Bertuccioli A, Botta L, Bruzzone MG, Cuccarini V, Fariselli L, Lamperti E. A novel lecithin-based delivery form of Boswellic acids as complementary treatment of radiochemotherapy-induced cerebral edema in patients with glioblastoma multiforme: a longitudinal pilot experience. J Neurosurg Sci. 2019;63(3):286–291. Source ↗
3. Bonilla Valente IV, Garcia D, Abbott A, Spruill L, Siegel J, Forcucci J, Hanna G, Mukherjee R, Hamann M, Hilliard E, Lockett M, Cole DJ, Klauber-DeMore N. The anti-proliferative effects of a frankincense extract in a window of opportunity phase Ia clinical trial for patients with breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2024;204(3):521–530. Source ↗
4. Yadav VR, Prasad S, Sung B, Gelovani JG, Guha S, Krishnan S, Aggarwal BB. Boswellic acid inhibits growth and metastasis of human colorectal cancer in orthotopic mouse model by downregulating inflammatory, proliferative, invasive and angiogenic biomarkers. Int J Cancer. 2012;130(9):2176–2184. Source ↗
5. Pang X, Yi Z, Zhang X, Sung B, Qu W, Lian X, Aggarwal BB, Liu M. Acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid inhibits prostate tumor growth by suppressing vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2-mediated angiogenesis. Cancer Res. 2009;69(14):5893–5900. Source ↗
6. RETRACTED — not used as supporting evidence on this page. Park B, Prasad S, Yadav V, Sung B, Aggarwal BB. Boswellic acid suppresses growth and metastasis of human pancreatic tumors in an orthotopic nude mouse model through modulation of multiple targets. PLoS One. 2011;6(10):e26943. Retracted: PLoS One. 2022;17(9):e0275582, for non-compliance with the journal's Animal Research Policy (tumour-size monitoring/IACUC protocol concerns) — not a finding of fabricated data. Source ↗ Retraction notice ↗
7. Khan MA, Singh M, Khan MS, Najmi AK, Ahmad S. Caspase mediated synergistic effect of Boswellia serrata extract in combination with doxorubicin against human hepatocellular carcinoma. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:294143. Source ↗
8. Takada Y, Ichikawa H, Badmaev V, Aggarwal BB. Acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid potentiates apoptosis, inhibits invasion, and abolishes osteoclastogenesis by suppressing NF-κB and NF-κB-regulated gene expression. J Immunol. 2006;176(5):3127–3140. Source ↗
9. Park B, Sung B, Yadav VR, Cho SG, Liu M, Aggarwal BB. Acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid suppresses invasion of pancreatic cancer cells through the downregulation of CXCR4 chemokine receptor expression. Int J Cancer. 2011;129(1):23–33. Source ↗
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16. Sengupta K, Kolla JN, Krishnaraju AV, Yalamanchili N, Rao CV, Golakoti T, Raychaudhuri S, Raychaudhuri SP. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory effect of Aflapin: a novel Boswellia serrata extract. Mol Cell Biochem. 2011;354(1-2):189–197. Source ↗
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19. Franceschi F, Togni S, Belcaro G, Dugall M, Luzzi R, Ledda A, Pellegrini L, Eggenhoffner R, Giacomelli L. A novel lecithin based delivery form of Boswellic acids (Casperome®) for the management of osteo-muscular pain: a registry study in young rugby players. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2016;20(19):4156–4161. Source ↗
20. Roe AL, Wilcox R, Price JM, Li L, Dai H, Freeman KM, Friley WW, Herman AG, Black CB, Brouwer KR, Jackson JP. An Evaluation of Potential Inhibition of CYP3A4/5 and CYP2C9 Enzymatic Activity by Boswellia serrata Extract. Appl In Vitro Toxicol. 2019;5(1):34–46.
21. Davis B, Sengupta K, Alluri VK, Golakoti T. Plasma Concentrations of Boswellic Acids in Fasting Healthy Humans Supplemented with a Water-Soluble Boswellia Extract (78% AKBA) vs. Reference Boswellia Extract (30% AKBA). Curr Dev Nutr. 2019;3(Suppl 1). Conference-abstract-level source, used only for the water-soluble Formulation comparator.
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AHCC 31 references

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